TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA

■ Styles of Temples :

● Nagara School of Architecture :

The style of temple architecture that became popular in northern India is known as Nagara. In north India it is common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform with steps leading up to it. It is a square temple with a number of graduated projections –rathakas – in the middle of each face which gives it a cruciform shape on the exterior. A tower (sikhara) gradually curving inwards and capped by a spheroid slab with ribs round the edge (Amalaka) give the elevation. Thus the two major characteristics of this style are the cruciform ground plan and the curvilinear tower.

Three subtypes of Nagara temple depending upon the shape of Shikhara –

1) Rekha Prasad or Latina –

Simple Shikhara, most common type, square at the base and its walls curve or slope inward to a point on the top. The top is called 'latina' or the rekha-Prasad type of Shikhara.

2) Phamsana –

Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than latina buildings. There roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the center of building, unlike the latina ones which look like sharply rising tall towers. Phamsana buildings do not curve inwards, instead they slope upwards on a straight incline. In many North Indian temples Phamsana was used for mandapa and latina for Garbhgriha.

3) Valabhi type –

Rectangular building with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber. They are usually called as wagon vaulted buildings. Example : Nandi devi or Nav durga temple Jogeshwar.

■ Three sub schools developed under Nagara style: 

A. Odisha School: 

The main architectural features of Odisha temples are classified in three orders, i.e. rekhapida, pidhadeul and khakra. Most of the main temple sites are located in ancient Kalinga—modern Puri District, including Bhubaneswar or ancient Tribhuvanesvara, Puri and Konark. The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct substyle within the nagara order. In general, here the shikhara, called deul in Odisha, is vertical almost until the top when it suddenly curves sharply inwards. Deuls are preceded, as usual, by mandapas called jagamohana in Odisha. Tuhe ground plan of the main temple is almost always square, which, in the upper reaches of its superstructure becomes circular in the crowning mastaka. This makes the spire nearly cylindrical in appearance in its length. Compartments and niches are generally square, the exterior of the temples are lavishly carved, their interiors generally quite bare. Odisha temples usually have boundary walls.
Konark Temple Example: Konark Temple, Jagannath temple, Lingaraj temple.

B. Khujuraho/Chandel school : 

Under the Chandela kings of Bundelkhand, a great school of architecture flourished in the 10th and 11th century. An example of this style is a group of temples at Khajuraho, in Madhya Pradesh. The finest is the shaivite temple known as Kandariya Mahadev, built around CE 1000. The standard type of Khajuraho temple has a shrine room, an assembly hall, and an entrance portico. These entities were treated as a whole, whereas in the odishan stylethey were concieved as separate elements joined by vestibules. The sikhara is curved for its whole length, and miniature sikharas emerge from the central tower. The halls and porticos of the temple are also crowned with smaller towers which rise progressively to lead the eye upto the main tower, and give the impression of a mountain ranger Khajuraho’s temples are also known for their extensiveerotic sculptures; the erotic expression is given equalimportance in human experience as spiritual pursuit, andit is seen as part of a larger cosmic whole. Many Hindutemples therefore feature mithun (embracing couple)sculptures, considered auspicious. Usually, they are placedat the entrance of the temple or on an exterior wall orthey may also be placed on the walls between the mandapaand the main shrine.
Kandariya Mahadev 

C. Solanki School :
The Chalukya (Solanki) kings of Gujarat patronized this school of architecture that flourished from the 11th to 13th century. The Vimala, Tejpala and Vastupala temples at Mount Abu exhibit this style. The most outstanding feature of this style is its minute and lovely decorativeness.
 

●sun temple@Modhera 
The Sun temple at Modhera dates back to earlyeleventh century and was built by Raja
Bhimdev-Iof the Solanki Dynasty in 1026. The Solankis werea branch of the later Chalukyas. There is amassive rectangular stepped tank called the suryakund in front of it. Proximity of sacred architectureto a water body such as a tank, a river or a pondhas been noticed right from the earliest times.By the early eleventh century they had become apart of many temples. This hundred-square-metrerectangular pond is perhaps the grandest temple tank inIndia. A hundred and eight miniature shrines are carvedin between the steps inside the tank. A huge ornamentalarch-torana leads one to the sabha mandapa (the assemblyhall) which is open on all sides, as was the fashion of thetimes in western and central Indian temples. The influence of the woodcarving tradition of Gujarat isevident in the lavish carving and sculpture work. However,the walls of the central small shrine are devoid of carvingand are left plain as the temple faces the east and, everyyear, at the time of the equinoxes, the sun shines directlyinto this central shrine.

● Temple Architecture in South India :

-----■ Dravida Style: 

South Indian temple architecture, also called Drāvida Style, architecture invariably employed for Hindu temples in modern Tamil Nadu from the 7th to the 18th century, characterized by its pyramidal, or KŪTINA-type, tower. Variant forms are found in Karnataka (formerly Mysore) and Andhra Pradesh states. The South Indian temple consists essentially of a square-chambered sanctuary topped by a superstructure, tower, or spire and an attached pillared porch or hall (MANDAPA, or MANDAPAM), enclosed by a peristyle of cells within a rectangular court. The external walls of the temple are segmented by pilasters and carry niches housing sculpture. The superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of the KŪTINA type and consists of an arrangement of gradually receding stories in a pyramidal shape. Each story is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, square at the corners and rectangular with barrel-vault roofs at the centre. The tower is topped by a dome-shaped cupola and a crowning pot and finial.

The origins of the Drāvida style can be observed in the Gupta period. The earliest extant examples of the developed style are the 7th-century rock-cut shrines

@Mahābalipuram and a developed structural temple, the Shore Temple (C. 700), at the same site.

• The South Indian style is most fully realized in the splendid

@Brhadīśvara temple at Thanjāvūr, built about 1003–10 by Rājarāja the Great, and the great temple at Gangaikondacōlapuram, built about 1025 by his son Rājendra Cōla. Subsequently, the style became increasingly elaborate—the complex of temple buildings enclosed by the court became larger, and a number of successive enclosures, each with its own gateway (GOPURA), were added. 

• By the Vijayanagar period (1336–1565)

the GOPURAs had increased in size so that they dominated the much smaller temples inside the enclosures.

▪ Four stages of temple architecture had been observed in South India Mainly during the Pallava's rule, around 6th century AD. Which are as follows:

• Stage–1 Mahendra Group :–
It marked the beginning of Rock cut cave architecture and word Mandap was used instead temple.

• Stage-II–Narsimha Group :–
Major development during this period was initiation of Decoration in rock cut cave structures and Mandap’s now became ‘Ratha’s’ which is a refined cave famous for beauty. The biggest Ratha was called as Dharamraj Rath and smallest one was called as draupadi Rath. Dharamraj Rath is considered as precursor of Dravidian style of temple making.

• Stage–III–Rajsimha Group :–
At this stage the real structural development of temple’s started and it moved outside the cave, earlier temples were part of caves.
Example: Shore temple at Mahabalipuram, (TN) Kailashnath temple at Kanchipuram.

Stage IV – Nandivarman Group: It is said to be the declining stage of south Indian temple architecture and only small temples were constructed in this period.

■ Chola Sculpture:  NATRAJ

Shiva is associated with the end of the cosmic world with which this dancing position is associated. In this chola sculpture he has been shown balancing himself on his right leg and suppressing the apasmara, the demon of ignorance or forgetfulness, with the foot of same leg. At the same time he raises his left leg in bhujangtrasita stance, which represents tirobhava that is kicking away the veil of maya or illusion from the devotee’s mind. His four arms are outstretched and main hand is posed in Abhayahasta or the Gesture suggesting. The upper right hand hold & Damaru, his favourite musical instrument to keep on the beat tala. The upper left hand is held in dola hasta and connects with the Abhaya hasta of the right hand. His Hair flocks fly on both the sides touching the circular jwala mala or the garland of flame, which surrounds the entire dancing figuration.
Sub Styles of Dravida Temples 

■ Nayaka Style : 

The Nayakas rose on the fall of Vijayanagara empire. They continued, indeed furthered, the artistic tradition of Dravida style. The most famous architectural landmark of this period is the Meenakshi- Sundareswara temple at Madurai. The great temple complex has actually two shrines; the first one dedicated to Shiva as Sundareswara and the second one to his wife Meenakshi. Along with the All the feature’s of Dravidian style being present, an additional prominent feature called ‘Parakram’s are of quite interest. Prakram’s are huge Corridore’s along with roofed ambulatory passageways. It served to connect various parts of temple while enclosing certain areas. Intricate carvings are seen all across the temple walls. The large tank set slightly off the axis to the main temple is another impressive feature of the temple. Surrounded by steps and a pillared portico, the tank was used for ritual bathing.

■ Vijaynagar Legacy :

Some variation to the common trend was introduced in Vijaynagar. They introduced the concept of enlarged high enclosure walls and more decoration on these high enclosure walls and Gopuram’s. Sculpture or motif of supernatural horses was used very frequently. They also introduced the concept of secular buildings (Example-Lotus Mahal).
Typically Vijaynagar period structures in the temple are the Amman Shrine (male deity of temple) and Kalyan Mandapam for exhibition and worship.

■ Vesara Style/Chalukya: 

●  Style/Karnataka Style:  This style has features of both Nagara and Dravidian style. It consists of two principle components like Dravidian style i.e. (i) Vimana (ii) Mandap. And departing from Dravidian style it does not have covered ambulatory around sanctum.
Example: Lad Khan temple at aihole, Temples at Badami,

@Virupaksha temple – Pattadakal.

☆ Architecture in Medieval India :

■  Indo-Islamic Style :

Indo-Islamic architecture encompasses a wide range of styles from various backgrounds that helped shape the architecture of the Indian subcontinent from the advent of Islam in the Indian subcontinent around the 7th century. It has left influences on modern Indian, Pakistani and Bangladeshi architecture. Both secular and religious buildings are influenced by Indo-Islamic architecture which exhibit Indian, Persian, Arab and the Turkish.

The Islamic rule in India saw the introduction of many new elements in the building style also. This was very much distinct from the already prevailing building style adopted in the construction of temples and other secular architecture. The main elements in the Islamic architecture is the introduction of arches and beams, and it is the arcuate style of construction while the traditional Indian building style is trabeate, using pillars and beams and lintels. The early buildings of the Slave dynasty did not employ true Islamic building styles and consisted of false domes and false arches. Later, the introduction of true arches and true domes start to appear, the earliest example is the Alai Darwaza by the side of Qutb Minar.
The different religious beliefs are also reflected in the mode of construction and architectural styles. The Islamic style also incorporated many elements from the traditional Indian style and a compound style emanated. The introduction of decorative brackets, balconies, pendentive decorations, etc in the architecture is an example in this regard. The other distinguishing features of Indo-Islamic architecture are the utilisation of kiosks (chhatris), tall towers (minars) and half-domed double portals. As human worship and its representation are not allowed in Islam, the buildings and other edifices are generally decorated richly in geometrical and arabesque designs. These designs were carved on stone in low relief, cut on plaster, painted or inlaid. The use of lime as mortar was also a major element distinct from the traditional building style.

The tomb architecture

▪humayuns tomb

is also another feature of the Islamic architecture as the practice of the burial of the dead is adopted. The general pattern of the tomb architecture is consisted of a domed chamber (hujra), a cenotaph in its centre with a mihrab on the western wall and the real grave in the underground chamber. To this general tomb architecture, the Mughals added a new dimension by introducing gardens all around the tomb. The Mughal tombs are generally placed at the centre of a huge garden complex, the latter being sub-divided into square compartments, the style is known as char-bagh. The Mughals also built large gardens in various levels and terraces on the char-bagh pattern. Scholars trace the evolution of the char-bagh pattern of gardening to the original land of the Mughals, the Kabul Valley, where depending upon the landscape and terrain, gardens and residential complexes were laid out. The Mughals inherited this garden type and superbly transformed it according to the new terrains in India. Thus, evolved a transformed style of char-bagh pattern of gardening. The Mughals are also credited to have introduced the double dome system of dome architecture and the pietra-dura style of inlay decorations.

As said above that before the emergence of indo-islamic architecture, it was trabeate method which was widely followed and with the establishment of Islamic rule, it was replaced by the Arcuate method of architecture. The major differences between the two can be classified as follows: -------